CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The recreational waters are referring to any areas which are suitable for swimming activities or other human water activities like dive, and boating. Examples of the recreational places are river, lake, and swimming pool. The hygienic quality for recreational water is important to society. Clear water is not an accurate indicator that a water source for recreational waters area is free of bacterial contamination. One of the most important and identifiable aspects of water quality is the presence of fecal coliform bacteria, especially Escherichia coli (E. coli). For make this area suitable for any recreational activities, water quality is the important aspect and it must monitoring in specific scale like total of bacteria concentration, present of fecal contamination, hardness and total dissolve solid.
1.1 Overview of Escherichia coli (E. coli)
Escherichia coli (E. coli) found by Theodor Escherich in 1885. E. coli is
in the family of Enterobacteriaceae. The E. coli is made up with gram-negative cell walls. They have rod shaped, and move or motile by use of flagella. E. coli are commonly found in soil, on vegetation and in surface of water. They also live in the intestine of warm-blooded animals include human. Coliform is name given for a colony of bacteria that in it have bacteria called E. coli. The usual E. coli cells size are 1-2µm in length and 0.1- 0.5 µm in diameter. The presence of coliform bacteria in water commonly effect by fecal contamination.
1.1.1 Sources of Escherichia coli
The E. coli are normally presence in the water surface. The sources of this pathogen in water are including agricultural runoff and infiltration, domestic animal, urban runoff, septic system, sewage lines, straight pipes and wild life. For swimming pool, the contamination sources are like the human fecal, hair, urine, and also bacteria on the surface of human skin or body.
1.2 Detecting of Escherichia coli
The methods for detecting Escherichia coli are depend on the purpose of
study. Usually the method we can use to detect these bacteria in water sources are determined by the taste of water, appearance and the water smell. The appearance of cloudy water gives a sign of the present of the coliform or E. coli. In laboratory, uses of agar medium are the one effective method to detect the coliform bacteria.
The sign of illness also can give the sign for bacteria present. If a person drinking any water sources that contaminated with high concentration of coliform or E. coli, the person will show symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, fever, and diarrhea.
1.3 Problem statement
Now days, we frequently heard about the water pollution happened to our
water sources. From this problem, it can make our recreational water in high risk of water problem. The recreational water qualities are important to protect the society from the waterborne disease like cholera, thypoid fever and intestinal problem. All of this diseases affected by the pathogens include E. coli and other bacteria in water. Recreational water quality measured based on concentrations of fecal-indicator bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli). E. coli preferred as indicator of the quality of freshwater recreational waters.
1.4 Significant of study
This study will help us to identify the quality of recreational water.
Through this study also we will notice or tell the people to take care our water sources from contamination. This is important to make sure our water supplies for daily uses and recreational activities are not contaminated with high concentration of bacteria.
Beside that, this study is important for to know the level of contamination in different recreational water categories surrounding us. Also, this study is important in order to plan the rules to control recreational water sources for future.
1.5 Objectives
1.5.1 To detect the coliform / E. coli in various sources of recreational water.
1.5.2 To calculate the total bacteria count in different recreational water samples.
1.5.3 To identify the water quality in different recreational water sample
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter will discuss about the previous study on the recreational water quality and to carry out any information about the detection of E. coli for this study. For this chapter also will discuses about the sources of recreational water contamination and others suitable discussion.
2.1 Introduction
The presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli) in surface waters is often attributed to fecal contamination from agricultural and urban or residential areas. However, variation in E. coli concentrations from site to site and the contribution of human vs. agricultural sources are not readily understood. In addition, E. coli concentrations at any site of water sources may vary depending on the bacteria level already in the water. The concentration of E. coli in surface water depends on various sources of contamination (Burton et al., 1987).
Sediments may effect to the survival of E. coli in water surface. Sediments will provide protection to the E. coli and other bacteria can lead to higher concentrations of E. coli in sediments than in the overlying water column (Burton et al., 1987). Thus, the sediment acts as a reservoir for E. coli in the stream. In addition, fecal bacteria may persist in stream sediments and contribute to concentrations in overlying waters for months after initial contamination (Sherer et al., 1992).
High temperatures of the air and water, contribute to rapid growth of E. coli bacteria (Schultze & Rohde, 2000). Contamination of recreational water by pathogenic this bacteria associated with fecal waste has significant impact on public health. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have reported several waterborne diseases are caused by the E. coli bacteria (CDC, 1999).
2.2 E. coli as indicator organism
Maintaining water that is safe for swimming, routine monitoring for
enteropathogens (which cause gastrointestinal diseases and are disseminated through fecal contamination of water) is necessary. Routine monitoring of enteropathogens, which can cause serious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, salmonellosis, and dysentery, is unreliable since these organisms are difficult to detect (Atlas and Bartha, 1993). Instead, an indicator organism, E. coli, is used to determine fecal contamination.
E. coli is considered as specific indicator of fecal contamination (Francy et al., 1993). The E. coli test recommended by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1986) confirms presumptive fecal coliforms. Indicator organisms are used to monitor the microbiological quality of water and provide information on the possible presence of pathogens. Indicator organisms are microorganisms that are associated with the intestinal tract of warm blooded animals and are consistently present in fecal waste. They occur in greater numbers than the associated pathogens, and their presence in water indicates fecal contamination of the water (OWML, 2005).
2.3 Recreational water quality standard
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is the most reliable indicator of fecal bacterial
contamination of surface waters in the U.S. according to water quality standards set by the EPA. E. coli bacteria are typically pathogenic in high concentration presence, an extensive epidemiological study demonstrated that E. coli concentrations are the best predictor of swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness. EPA state that the bacterial water quality standards is based on the concentration of E. coli in water which the health risk from waterborne illness is acceptably high (Dufour, 1984).
The EPA recommended the standard of water quality for E. coli is based on two criteria: 1) a geometric mean of 126 organisms/100 ml based on several samples collected during dry weather conditions or 2) 235 organisms/100 ml for any single water sample (EPA, 1986). If either criterion is exceeded, the site is not in water quality standards and not recommended for swimming. The current EPA water quality standard for E. coli corresponds to approximately eight gastrointestinal illnesses per 1000 swimmers (Dufour, 1984).
`The standard of water quality currently adopted by the state of Vermont for class B recreational waters are based on a threshold concentration of 77 organisms/100 ml water for any single sample (Vermont Water Resources Board, 1996). Any sample that exceeds this threshold will be in violation of the standard. This criterion corresponds to approximately four expected illnesses per 1000 swimmers (Dufour, 1984).
Unlike the EPA standards that are based on a geometric mean of several samples over time, the Vermont standards are based on a threshold concentration for any single water sample. The current threshold standard remains unchanged in the Vermont Water Quality Standards adopted June 10, 1999 that becomes effective on July 2, 2000 (Vermont Water Resources Board, 1999).
2.4 Detection of E. coli in water
There is not having any specific method for the detection of E. coli in
water that is accepted throughout the world. In the US, a standard method using membrane filter has been established (American Public Health Association, 1986).
In the UK, the definition of E. coli in water is also based on the ability to produce gas from lactose and produce indole from tryptophan at 44°C. A method for enumeration employs a standard multiple tube test with a modified glutamate synthetic medium at 37°C as a first selective step, followed by further cultivation in standard media at 44°C (American Public Health Association, 1986).
Single agar layer (SAL) is a method that documented and approved by US. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The type of agar used must have ability to detect the presence of E. coli and must be done under sterile condition. For different type of agar it contained different kind of nutrient that made it. These differences can effect the period and types of bacteria growth. SAL method is quantitative and limited to samples volume of 100ml (OWML, 2005).
2.5 Sources of Escherichia coli
Sources of Escherichia coli are commonly from fecal material of warm-
blooded animals and humans. From total count of bacteria in water sample that take from public recreational water area in German not only containing E. coli but include with several of bacteria such as Salmonella thypi, Salmonella paratyphi, vibrio cholera and also Mycobacterium avioum (Logsdon, et,al, 1975). Another studies show that the 12,000 dogs living in a suburban Washington D.C. watershed leave behind more than 5,000 pounds of "solid waste" every day. An estimated 238,000 working farms and ranches in the United States generate about 500 million tons of manure each year. Through this study also found that also can presence in unusual sources. From the study have been done, water runoff collected directly from the parking lots can contain between 9000 and 100000 E. coli per ml (Von Sigler, 2003).
Table 2.1: Concentration of enteric pathogens in feces.
Source from: Meier et al, 2000
Swimming pool is a location that has direct contact with water and human. Every person who used the swimming pool will contribute in microbiological contamination in water. Each person will bring out average 50ml urine and0.5 – 1.0 gram of organic material like human feces and skin. From this fact, a person who using the swimming pool will contribute about 1- 10 million of colon bacteria (Heinz, 1975).
